Space Tech Expo USA - Booth# 6024

22-24 May, 2018 : Space Tech Expo is America's engineering meeting place for space technology to showcase the latest from technical designers, sub-system suppliers, manufacturers and components through to systems integrators for civil, military and commercial space.


Space Tech Expo USA
Booth# 6024
22-24 May, 2018
Pasadena, California, USA

Published on 06 Dec 2017 by Marion Van de Graaf

High Voltage Resistor Selection Checklist

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Project Specification Analysis Application Analysis ✅ Aviation Operational Environment: High altitudes, varying atmospheric pressures, and temperatures. Key Requirements: Vibration Resistance: Resistors must withstand continuous vibrations. Temperature Variability: Functionality across a broad temperature range. Technical Calculations: Vibration Stress = (Force/Area) * [1 - (Damping Coefficient * Frequency)] ✅ Space Operational Environment: Extreme temperatures, vacuum conditions, and radiation. Key Requirements: Radiation Hardness: Resistance to ionizing radiation effects. High Reliability: Low failure rates due to inaccessibility for repairs. Technical Calculations: Absorbed Dose (Gray) = Energy (Joules) / Mass (Kilograms) ✅ Defense Operational Environment: Battlefield conditions, including exposure to extreme elements and potential electromagnetic interference. Key Requirements: Ruggedness: High durability under physical and environmental stress. EMI/RFI Shielding: Protection against electromagnetic and radio-frequency interference. Technical Calculations: Shielding Effectiveness (SE) = 20 * log₁₀(E₁ / E₂), where E₁ and E₂ are electric field strengths. ✅ Medical Operational Environment: Sterile, controlled, and sensitive to electronic noise. Key Requirements: Precision and Stability: High accuracy for critical measurements. Biocompatibility: Safe for use in or near the human body. Technical Calculations: Safety Margin = Desired Performance / Actual Performance ✅ Energy Operational Environment: Power plants, substations, and renewable energy installations. Key Requirements: High Power Handling: Capacity to manage large currents and voltages. Surge Tolerance: Ability to withstand electrical surges. Technical Calculations: Thermal Dissipation = Power (Watts) = Voltage² / Resistance (Ohms) ✅ Mass Transportation Operational Environment: Trains, buses, and other public transport systems, often outdoor. Key Requirements: Robustness: Durability in fluctuating environmental conditions. Consistency: Reliable performance under continuous use. Technical Calculations: Mechanical Stress = Stress = Force / Area, considering dynamic loads during transportation. ✅ Telecommunications Operational Environment: Data centers, transmission stations, and communication devices. Key Requirements: Signal Integrity: Minimal impact on signal quality. Power Efficiency: Optimized for high-frequency operation. Technical Calculations: Attenuation (dB) = 10 * log₁₀(Power_in / Power_out) ✅ Industry Operational Environment: Factories, automation systems, and harsh industrial settings. Key Requirements: Environmental Resistance: Withstand dust, chemicals, and mechanical stress. Load Capacity: Suitable for high-load and continuous operations. Technical Calculations: Load Capacity = Load (Watts) = Voltage² / Resistance, ensuring capacity for industrial applications. Electrical Requirements ✅ Voltage Range Description: The range of voltage that the resistor must handle during normal operation. Key Considerations: Maximum Operating Voltage: The highest voltage the resistor can withstand without degradation. Minimum Operating Voltage: The lowest functional voltage for the resistor. Technical Calculations: Voltage Stress = Applied Voltage / Rated Voltage Safety Margin = (Rated Voltage - Maximum Operating Voltage) / Rated Voltage ✅ Current Profile Description: Analysis of current levels that the resistor will encounter, including average and peak currents. Key Considerations: Average Operating Current: The typical current flowing through the resistor under normal conditions. Peak Current: The maximum current that may flow through the resistor, often in surge conditions. Technical Calculations: Power (Watts) = Current² (Amps) × Resistance (Ohms) Thermal Management: Determining heat dissipation needs based on current flow ✅ Power Dissipation Description: The ability of the resistor to dissipate energy in the form of heat. Key Considerations: Power Rating: The maximum power that the resistor can safely dissipate. Overload Conditions: The resistor's behavior under temporary power overloads. Technical Calculations: Derating Curve Analysis: Adjusting the power rating based on operating temperature Heat Generated (Joules) = I²Rt, where I is current, R is resistance, and t is time. ✅ Resistance Value and Tolerance Description: Specifies the resistor’s nominal resistance value and permissible deviation. Key Considerations: Nominal Resistance: The intended resistance value. Tolerance: The allowable deviation from the nominal resistance, expressed in percentage. Technical Calculations: Tolerance = (Actual Resistance - Nominal Resistance) / Nominal Resistance × 100% Worst-Case Scenario Analysis: Considering the extremes of the tolerance range in design calculations ✅ Frequency Response Description: The behavior of the resistor at different frequencies, especially in high-frequency applications. Key Considerations: Inductive and Capacitive Components: These can affect resistor behavior at high frequencies. Skin Effect: The tendency of alternating current to distribute itself unevenly within the conductor. Technical Calculations: Reactance (Ohms) = 2πfL for inductance, 1/(2πfC) for capacitance. Frequency Impact Analysis: Assessing how frequency variations affect the resistor's performance ✅ Temperature Coefficient Description: The rate at which the resistor's resistance value changes with temperature. Key Considerations: Positive/Negative Temperature Coefficient: Determines if resistance increases or decreases with temperature. Stability Over Temperature Range: The resistor's ability to maintain its characteristics across temperatures. Technical Calculations: ΔR/R₀ = α × ΔT, where ΔR is the change in resistance, R₀ is the original resistance , α is the temperature coefficient, and ΔT is the change in temperature.   2. Resistor Type and Material Selection   ✅ Resistor Composition Description: The physical and chemical composition of the resistor, which determines its properties and suitability for different applications. Key Types and Considerations: ➡ Metal Film Resistors: Characteristics: Good temperature stability, low noise, and high precision. Usage: Ideal for precision applications requiring stable performance.   ➡ Carbon Film Resistors: Characteristics: Inexpensive, widely available, but with larger temperature coefficients. Usage: General-purpose applications where cost is a factor.   ➡ Wirewound Resistors: Characteristics: High power ratings, excellent stability, but inductive. Usage: High-power applications, precision circuits, but not suitable for high-frequency circuits.   ➡ Thick and Thin Film Resistors: Characteristics: Versatile, with a balance between performance and cost. Usage: Common in consumer electronics, telecommunications, and automotive sectors.   ➡ Foil Resistors: Characteristics: Extremely precise and stable, low temperature coefficients. Usage: High-precision applications, calibration equipment, and laboratory standards. ✅ Electrical Characteristics Description: The key electrical properties of resistors that define their performance in a circuit. Key Characteristics: ➡ Resistance Value: Consideration: Selecting the nominal resistance value as per circuit requirements. Calculation: Based on Ohm’s Law and circuit design parameters.   ➡ Power Rating: Consideration: The maximum power the resistor can dissipate without damage. Calculation: Power (Watts) = Voltage (Volts) × Current (Amps); also consider derating factors based on temperature.   ➡ Voltage Rating: Consideration: The maximum voltage that can be applied across the resistor. Calculation: Linked to the resistor’s size and construction; generally provided by the manufacturer.   ➡ Tolerance: Consideration: The permissible deviation from the nominal resistance value. Calculation: Specified as a percentage (e.g., ±1%, ±5%). ✅ Material Properties Description: The specific properties of materials used in resistor manufacturing, which influence performance under different conditions. Key Properties: ➡ Thermal Conductivity: Affects the resistor's ability to dissipate heat.   ➡ Temperature Coefficient: Influences how resistance changes with temperature.   ➡ Corrosion Resistance: Determines longevity and reliability in harsh environments.   ➡ Mechanical Strength: Resistance to physical stress and vibration. ✅ Construction and Design Description: How resistors are constructed, including their physical design, which impacts their performance and application. Key Considerations: Surface Mount vs. Through-Hole: Smaller, suitable for automated assembly; preferred in compact electronics. Larger, easy for hand assembly; used in applications requiring higher power handling. Encapsulation and Coating: Protects against environmental factors like moisture, dust, and chemicals. Lead Configuration and Materials: Influences mechanical stability and ease of soldering.   3. Performance Parameters Analysis   ✅ Electrical Tolerance Description: The degree to which the actual resistance value can deviate from the nominal value. Key Considerations: Tolerance Levels: Common tolerances are ±1%, ±5%, and ±10%. Precision applications require tighter tolerances. Impact on Performance: Affects the accuracy and predictability of circuit performance. Technical Calculations: Tolerance = (Actual Resistance - Nominal Resistance) / Nominal Resistance × 100% Worst-Case Scenario Analysis: Evaluating circuit function under maximum tolerance deviation ✅ Temperature Coefficient Description: The rate at which the resistor's resistance value changes with temperature. Key Considerations: Positive/Negative Coefficient: Positive means resistance increases with temperature, and vice versa. Stability Over Temperature Range: Essential for applications with wide temperature variations. Technical Calculations: ΔR/R₀ = α × ΔT, where ΔR is the change in resistance, R₀ is the original resistance, α is the temperature coefficient, and ΔT is the change in temperature. ✅ Frequency Response Description: The behavior of the resistor at different frequencies. Key Considerations: Inductive/Capacitive Effects: Impact on the resistor's performance at high frequencies. Skin Effect: The tendency for AC current to concentrate near the surface of the conductor. Technical Calculations: Reactance (Ohms) = 2πfL for inductance, 1/(2πfC) for capacitance. Frequency Impact Analysis: Assessing how frequency variations affect performance ✅ Noise Characteristics Description: The intrinsic electrical noise generated by the resistor. Key Considerations: Thermal Noise: Generated due to thermal agitation of electrons, dependent on temperature and resistance. Voltage Coefficient: Noise variation with applied voltage. Technical Calculations: V_noise = sqrt(4kTRΔf), where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is temperature, R is resistance , and Δf is bandwidth. ✅ Power Rating and Derating Description: The maximum power a resistor can dissipate without damage. Key Considerations: Rated Power: Determined at a specific ambient temperature, usually 70°C. Derating Curve: Power rating decreases as operating temperature increases. Technical Calculations: Power (Watts) = Voltage (Volts) × Current (Amps) Derating Factor: Based on manufacturer’s derating curve, typically a linear reduction with temperature ✅ Pulse Load Handling Description: The resistor's ability to withstand transient or pulse loads. Key Considerations: Pulse Withstand Capability: Resistors must handle energy spikes without damage. Energy Rating: The amount of energy a resistor can absorb in a pulse. Technical Calculations: Energy (Joules) = ½ × C × V², where C is the capacitance and V is the voltage. ✅ Environmental and Mechanical Stability Description: Resistance to environmental and mechanical stresses. Key Considerations: Vibration and Shock Resistance: Essential for applications in harsh mechanical environments. Environmental Resistances: Performance under varying humidity, temperature, and chemical exposure. Technical Calculations: Stress Analysis: Based on mechanical load and mounting considerations Environmental Testing: Following industry standards (e.g., MIL-STD for military applications) ✅ Reliability and Longevity Description: The expected operational life and failure rate of the resistor. Key Considerations: Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF): An indicator of reliability over time. Wear-Out Mechanisms: Factors leading to degradation, such as temperature and voltage stress. Technical Calculations: MTBF Estimation: Based on historical data and stress testing results   4. Physical and Environmental Suitability   ✅ Mechanical Design Constraints Description: The physical dimensions and construction features of the resistor that must be compatible with the application. Key Considerations: Size and Footprint: Matching the physical space available in the device or circuit. Mounting Method: Surface mount or through-hole, affecting the mechanical stability and ease of assembly. Technical Aspects: Space Utilization: Calculation of space requirements based on component dimensions. Mechanical Stress Analysis: Stress = Force / Area; considering the impact of assembly and operation. ✅ Thermal Management Description: The ability of the resistor (and its environment) to handle heat generated during operation. Key Considerations: Heat Dissipation: Efficient thermal management to prevent overheating. Cooling Requirements: Need for additional cooling solutions like heat sinks or airflow. Technical Aspects: Thermal Resistance: Thermal Resistance (°C/W) = (T_junction - T_ambient) / Power Dissipated. Heat Sink Efficiency: Based on heat sink material and design. ✅ Environmental Resistance Description: The resistor's ability to withstand environmental factors such as humidity, temperature extremes, and corrosive atmospheres. Key Considerations: Humidity Resistance: Operation in high humidity without performance degradation. Temperature Extremes: Functionality across the intended operational temperature range. Corrosion Resistance: Suitability for use in potentially corrosive environments. Technical Aspects: Accelerated Life Testing: Simulating environmental conditions to test durability. Corrosion Rate Calculation: Corrosion Rate = Weight Loss / (Area × Time × Density). ✅ Durability and Lifespan Description: The overall robustness and expected operational life of the resistor under normal and stress conditions. Key Considerations: Material Fatigue and Wear: Long-term effects of operational stress on materials. Life Expectancy: Predicted lifespan based on construction and environmental exposure. Technical Aspects: Fatigue Analysis: Fatigue Life = (Stress Range / Fatigue Strength) × Cycles to Failure. Arrhenius Equation for Lifespan Prediction: Rate = A × e^(-Ea/(kT)), where Ea is activation energy, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is temperature. ✅ Compliance with Standards and Regulations Description: Adherence to industry-specific standards and environmental regulations. Key Considerations: Industry Standards: Compliance with relevant standards (e.g., IEC, IEEE, MIL-STD). Environmental Regulations: Meeting requirements like RoHS for hazardous substances. Technical Aspects: Certification Verification: Ensuring the resistor meets specified standards. Regulatory Assessment: Evaluating components for compliance with environmental and safety regulations. ✅ Specialized Application Needs Description: Additional considerations for resistors used in specialized applications. Key Considerations: Vibration and Shock Absorption: For applications involving movement or mechanical impact. EMI/RFI Shielding: In environments with high electromagnetic or radio-frequency interference. Technical Aspects: Vibration Isolation Design: Calculating isolation requirements based on application. Shielding Effectiveness: SE = 20 * log₁₀(E₁ / E₂); measuring the effectiveness of EMI/RFI shielding.   5. Safety and Regulatory Compliance   ✅ Voltage and Power Safety Margins Description: Ensuring that resistors can handle voltages and power levels beyond their nominal ratings to account for unexpected surges or spikes. Key Considerations: Voltage Rating: The maximum voltage a resistor can handle; should be higher than the maximum system voltage. Power Rating: The ability of the resistor to dissipate power; should include a safety margin above the expected maximum. Technical Aspects: Overload Testing: Testing resistors at elevated voltages and power levels to ensure robustness. Safety Margin Calculation: Safety Margin = (Rated Value - Maximum System Value) / Rated Value × 100%. ✅ Certification and Standards Compliance Description: Adherence to international and national standards that ensure safety, reliability, and quality. Key Considerations: Industry Standards: Compliance with standards like IEEE, IEC, UL, etc., depending on the application. Specific Regulations: Adherence to sector-specific regulations (e.g., automotive, medical, military). Technical Aspects: Certification Verification: Checking for certifications from recognized standards organizations. Regulatory Compliance Testing: Conducting or reviewing tests that demonstrate compliance with relevant standards. ✅ Environmental and Health Regulations Description: Ensuring that resistor manufacturing and operation comply with environmental and health safety standards. Key Considerations: RoHS Compliance: Restriction of Hazardous Substances in electronic components. REACH Compliance: Regulation concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals. Technical Aspects: Material Analysis: Assessing materials used in resistors for restricted substances. Compliance Documentation: Maintaining records and certifications proving compliance. ✅ Quality Assurance Protocols Description: Implementing quality control measures throughout the manufacturing and testing processes. Key Considerations: ISO Certifications: Compliance with ISO quality management standards (e.g., ISO 9001). In-House Testing: Rigorous testing protocols during manufacturing to ensure consistent quality. Technical Aspects: Quality Control Processes: Establishment of standard operating procedures for quality assurance. Testing and Inspection Metrics: Defining and applying metrics for quality evaluation. ✅ Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) Description: Systematically evaluating potential failure modes of resistors and their impact on the larger system. Key Considerations: Identify Potential Failure Modes: Understanding how a resistor might fail (e.g., open circuit, short circuit) and the likelihood of these events. Assess Impact on System Performance: Evaluating the consequences of each failure mode on the system's operation. Technical Aspects: FMEA Procedure: Creating detailed FMEA charts that list potential failures, their causes, effects, and severity. Risk Priority Number (RPN) Calculation: RPN = Severity × Occurrence × Detection. ✅ Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Considerations Description: Managing the risks associated with electrostatic discharge, which can damage electronic components. Key Considerations: ESD Sensitivity: Understanding the susceptibility of resistors to ESD damage. ESD Protection Measures: Implementing handling and packaging practices to mitigate ESD risks. Technical Aspects: ESD Testing: Conducting tests like the Human Body Model (HBM) to assess ESD robustness. Grounding and Shielding Strategies: Developing procedures for safe handling and storage. 6. Longevity and Reliability Assessments ✅ Life Cycle Analysis Description: Estimating the operational lifespan of resistors under normal and stress conditions. Key Considerations: Operational Lifespan: Predicted duration of effective performance under typical use. Stress-Induced Wear: Impact of environmental and electrical stress on lifespan. Technical Aspects: Accelerated Aging Tests: Simulating long-term use to predict lifespan. Arrhenius Model for Lifetime Prediction: Lifetime ∝ e^(−Activation Energy / (Boltzmann Constant × Temperature)). ✅ Reliability Testing Description: Conducting tests to verify the reliability of resistors under various conditions. Key Considerations: Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF): The average time expected between failures in a population of resistors. Failure Rate Analysis: Evaluating the rate at which resistors are expected to fail. Technical Aspects: Environmental Stress Screening (ESS): Exposing resistors to extreme conditions to identify early failures. Statistical Reliability Analysis: Using statistical methods to estimate failure rates and MTBF. ✅ Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Description: Systematically examining potential failure modes of resistors and assessing their impact. Key Considerations: Potential Failure Modes: Identifying how a resistor might fail (e.g., open circuit, short circuit). Effects on System Operation: Understanding the consequences of each failure mode. Technical Aspects: FMEA Chart Creation: Developing detailed charts that list potential failures, causes, and effects. Risk Assessment: Calculating Risk Priority Number (RPN) to prioritize risk mitigation efforts. ✅ Environmental and Mechanical Stress Testing Description: Testing resistors’ performance under various environmental and mechanical stresses. Key Considerations: Temperature Cycling: Exposing resistors to temperature extremes. Vibration and Shock Tests: Assessing mechanical robustness. Technical Aspects: Test Protocols: Following industry-standard test procedures (e.g., MIL-STD, IEC). Stress Test Analysis: Evaluating changes in performance characteristics post-testing. ✅ Quality and Manufacturing Consistency Description: Ensuring that the manufacturing process consistently produces resistors of high quality. Key Considerations: Quality Control Processes: Implementing rigorous quality checks during production. Material Consistency: Ensuring uniformity in materials used for manufacturing. Technical Aspects: Statistical Process Control (SPC): Monitoring production processes to detect and control quality. Batch Testing: Periodic testing of samples from production batches. ✅ Manufacturer Reputation and Track Record Description: Evaluating the historical performance and reliability reputation of the resistor manufacturer. Key Considerations: Historical Performance Data: Looking at the past performance of products from the manufacturer. Customer Feedback and Reviews: Gathering insights from user experiences and industry feedback. Technical Aspects: Vendor Assessment: Conducting a thorough review of the manufacturer’s history and capabilities. Reliability Metrics Comparison: Comparing performance metrics against industry benchmarks.